Chapter 1 Structural Change

Understanding Colonialism

Colonialism, particularly Western colonialism, significantly impacted India, bringing about far-reaching and deep changes in its political, economic, and social structures. Unlike pre-capitalist conquests focused on tribute, British colonialism, driven by capitalism, directly interfered with laws, land ownership, agricultural practices, manufacturing, and forest usage to maximize profit for British capitalism.

This era introduced modern ideas like liberalism alongside the denial of liberty, creating paradoxes that shaped India's experience with modernity. The English language, while providing global market advantages, also became a marker of privilege, disadvantaging those without access to it, though it opened new opportunities for previously excluded groups like Dalits.

Colonialism also led to significant population movements, both within India (e.g., Jharkhand to Assam for tea plantations) and across continents (indentured labor to Mauritius, Africa, Americas), with many descendants of these migrants forming the Indian diaspora.

Activity 1.1 encourages reflection on everyday objects, phrases, or media related to the colonial past and its influence on contemporary life.

Box 1.1: Forest Policy in the Colonial Period in North-East India shows how colonial policies transformed forests into revenue sources, often dispossessing tribal communities. Box 1.2: People destined to work for a minimum of five years on plantations in Mauritius highlights the forced migration of Indian labor.

Urbanisation And Industrialisation

Industrialization, characterized by machine production and inanimate power sources, and urbanization, the growth of cities, are often linked processes. While Western societies experienced industrialization leading to urbanization, India's experience under British rule was different.

The Colonial Experience

British industrialization led to de-industrialization in India's traditional manufacturing sectors (like cotton and silk) due to competition from cheap British textiles. While older urban centers like Surat declined, new colonial cities like Bombay, Kolkata, and Madras grew, serving as hubs for exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods, linking India to the global capitalist economy.

Unlike Britain, India's early industrialization under colonialism initially led to increased migration to agriculture. Colonial policies provided land ownership and English education, but these substitutes for traditional livelihoods were seen as insufficient to create a genuine middle class, with zamindars becoming "parasites" and graduates becoming "job hunters." Colonial cities were designed to serve British interests, acting as conduits for raw material export.

Box 1.3 from the Census of India (1911) notes the decline of village industries due to European imports and the shift towards agriculture. Box 1.4: The substitutes offered by the East India Company critiques the inadequacy of colonial policies. Box 1.5: A model of the South Asian colonial city describes the planning and function of colonial cities like Kolkata. Box 1.6 & 1.7: How were labourers recruited? detail the exploitative labor practices in the tea industry, facilitated by penal laws benefiting planters. Box 1.8: How did the planter’s live? provides a glimpse into the luxurious lives of British planters contrasted with the harsh conditions of laborers. Activity 1.2 prompts research into the history of major Indian cities and their colonial origins.

Industrialisation In Independent India

Post-independence India actively promoted industrialization as a path to growth and social equity, influenced by nationalist ideals and the desire to overcome colonial economic exploitation. Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned a modern India built on heavy industries, dams, and power stations. The National Planning Committee (1938) and later the Planning Commission (1950) laid the groundwork for a planned economy, focusing on agriculture, heavy industries, human capital, finance, infrastructure, and social services.

Box 1.9 outlines the scope of the Planning Commission's work and the focus areas identified by the pre-independence National Planning Committee.

Activity 1.3 suggests exploring the origins of the Amul milk industry as an example of post-independence development. Activity 1.4 asks students to research the growth of industrial towns like Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela, and Durgapur.

Urbanisation In Independent India

India has witnessed significant urbanization since independence, with the urban population and the number of urban agglomerations (UAs/Towns) increasing steadily. While the overall urban population share has grown, the decadal growth rate of urban population has shown a declining trend since the 1980s, though it slightly increased in 2011. For the first time post-independence, the absolute increase in population was greater in urban areas than rural ones, partly due to a sharp decline in rural growth rates.

The growth of metropolitan cities, attracting migrants from rural areas and smaller towns, is particularly rapid, often straining urban infrastructure. Sociologist M.S.A. Rao identified three types of urban impact on villages: families with migrants working in distant cities, villages near industrial towns (leading to uprooting or influx of workers), and villages near expanding metropolitan cities.

Activity 8.1 (re-numbered from previous chapter context, likely intended for this chapter) suggests a survey on seating preferences in public spaces to understand reactions to crowding.

Conclusion

Colonialism has left a lasting and complex legacy on India, influencing its economy, society, and culture. Industrialization and urbanization, though often shaped by colonial interests, have transformed production systems, technologies, settlements, and the overall "way of life." Understanding these structural changes, their paradoxical effects, and their continuation post-independence is crucial for comprehending contemporary Indian society.

The chapter highlights how colonial policies led to de-industrialization in some sectors while fostering new industries and cities serving colonial needs. It also touches upon independent India's planned approach to industrialization and the evolving patterns of urbanization.

Questions at the end prompt reflection on colonialism's impact, the link between industrialization and urbanization, local urban history, and the defining features of towns versus cities.